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• 1 2021-04-19T17:20:01+00:00 Hunting 1 image_header 2021-04-19T17:20:01+00:00

  Above: Dakota Hunting Buffalo. Painting by Seth Eastman in Mary H. Eastman, The American Aboriginal Portfolio (Newberry Library, Ayer 250.45 .E2 1853). View catalog record

  Providing meat for their families was primarily the job of men, although women sometimes hunted small animals. Hunting methods, based on extensive knowledge of the habits of game animals, included shooting with a bow and arrow or gun and setting various kinds of traps. Hunters had different arrows for different kinds of game: small ones for birds, rabbits and other small animals, and larger ones for deer, bears, wolves and foxes. Deer and moose were hunted at night with lights. Deer calls that imitated the cry of fawns also attracted the deer to the hunter. Native peoples with access to the prairie region of the upper Mississippi River hunted buffalo in the summer or fall by the surround method. A large group of people would drive a herd into an enclosure where the animals could be killed. By the early 19th century, some groups, such as the Dakota, hunted the buffalo on horseback. Meat from hunts always was widely shared. Hunters used a deadfall on large animals, such as bears, wolves and foxes. A timber supported by an upright was set to fall when an animal took bait. Men made snares for rabbits. They trapped deer by concealing a stake behind some brush along a deer trail. The deer would jump over the brush and become impaled. When beaver traveled on land, they were caught when they fell into grass-covered holes dug by hunters. Men trapped for beaver, otter, and muskrat. The meat was eaten and the pelts usually were traded.

  Native people believed that successful hunting always involved proper relations with the animal spirits that controlled the animals. Boys fasted many times to obtain a spirit helper to aid in hunting. Hunters held ceremonies to show respect to the animal spirits before going on a hunt, and hunters carried charms that symbolized their bond with their spirit helper. Often, men who had reputations for having especially powerful spirit helpers led deer and buffalo hunts. Today many Native people still hunt for subsistence, and tribal or other game wardens monitor hunting.

  Do you want to know more about hunting?

  Spearing Muskrat

  Muskrats were hunted near their houses. In the winter they were speared and in warm weather traps were set on top of their houses. Here, Eastman shows that the work was difficult. One hunter has his mittens on a string around his neck. Another hunter has an axe for chopping the ice and a bag for the game. The men are wearing woolen hoods introduced by French trappers. Painting by Seth Eastman in Mary H. Eastman, The American Aboriginal Portfolio (Newberry Library, Ayer 250.45 .E2 1853).

  Dakota Hunting Buffalo

  By the time Eastman saw them, the Dakota had horses and were hunting from horseback. Painting by Seth Eastman in Mary H. Eastman, The American Aboriginal Portfolio (Newberry Library, Ayer 250.45 .E2 1853).

  Dakota Woman Preparing Buffalo Hide. Watercolor by Seth Eastman

  Women used hide to make clothing, containers, dwellings, and ceremonial items. Painting by Seth Eastman in Mary H. Eastman, The American Aboriginal Portfolio (Newberry Library, Ayer 250.45 .E2 1853).

  Ojibwa Man Hunting with Bow and Arrow, 2006

  Today hunters use both guns and bows and arrows to hunt. Photo courtesy of Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission (GLIFWC).

  Hunting Deer, Fall 1997

  Mille Lacs tribal members David and Mary Sam participated in the first off-reservation deer season in the Treaty of 1837 ceded area. The tribes establish tribal quotas for deer and moose. The quotas represent less than 10 percent of the states' average annual antlerless deer harvest in the ceded territory. The "treaty deer season" is under tribal law; therefore, it is different than the state deer season. Photo courtesy of Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission (GLIFWC).

  Tagging deer

  Here, a deer taken during the tribal, off-reservation season is tagged and registered. Tribes have game wardens for on-reservation hunting, fishing, and gathering activity. GLIFWC game wardens patrol the ceded territory. Infringements are handled in tribal court. Photo courtesy of Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission (GLIFWC).

  Do you want to learn more about bears?

  Black Bear

  Photo courtesy of the National Park Service.

  Paul Radin interviewed elderly Winnebagos [Ho-Chunks] about hunting bear. Before a man started on a bear hunt he went through the following ceremony, known as literally “concentration of the mind.” He either built a special lodge or used his own for the ceremony and built a fire. He offered food—corn and dried fruit, tobacco, and red feathers to the bear spirit. He rubbed sticks together while singing until he saw a sign in the fire (a streak of flame passing from the fire toward the gifts he brought the bear). This attracted the bear. He could hunt alone or join the tribal bear hunt in the summer, which was led by the Bear Clan. The same ceremony was held before a man hunted deer. One Winnebago man described the bear hunt thus: “When the Winnebago went on the bear hunt they always traveled in large numbers. They would always be able to find bears in the groves of red timber-oak, and it would be very easy to kill them. Nevertheless the old people considered it a very dangerous affair, especially if the hunters came upon breeding bear. If anyone killed a breeding bear he would cause very much trouble. The male bear would get very angry and chase the man who had done the killing, and if it ever happened that he was out of ammunition, the man surely would be killed. The bear would jump upon him and tear him to pieces. It is said that when bears kill a human being they always eat him. Another way of getting at the bears was to clear away the ground for them. It is very easy to kill them then. This generally takes place at the time of the year when the acorns fall to the ground. The bears gather in the cleared spaces and lie down there. They lie in the timber under the trees. They look like black objects in the distance. It is customary to shoot at them from some distance, but care is always taken not to shoot all of them, nor to shoot when the wind was with them, for then they would scent the hunters or hear the noise and run away. For this reason hunters are very careful about these two things—namely, the number of bear shot and the direction of the wind.” The Winnebago Tribe, NLAyer301A2, 1915-16.

  Wisconsin has a thriving black bear population of about 13,000 animals, whose primary range is in the northern third of the state. Adult male bears average 47-70 inches long and weigh about 250-350 pounds. Female bears weigh between 120-180 pounds and measure 50-58 inches long. Black bears have a round and short body with sturdy legs. They walk on the soles of their feet, the same as people, and have five toes with non-retractable claws. As a matter of fact, the bear’s hind footprint looks a lot like a human one. Claws come in handy for hunting, climbing trees, and tearing open logs in search of insects. Even though they are huge bulky animals, they can run over 30 miles per hour. They eat all the food they need for the year in only 6 to 8 months. You might see them out at twilight between mid-May and into late September. In early fall they gorge themselves with greens, nuts, berries, carrion (dead meat), insects and small mammals (and sometimes refuse carelessly left by people). In late fall, they stuff themselves into a cozy den and fall into a deep winter sleep. Their body temperature, heartbeat and respiration decrease but dormant bears can be easily awakened. Dens can be found in hollow trees, brush piles, rock crevices, caves, excavated holes in hillsides, or under upturned tree roots. They do not eat, drink, urinate or defecate all winter. They lose up to 20 percent of their fall weight by spring. Bears are loners. A male bear needs up to 27 square miles for his territory. A female only wanders about 5 miles from her den. You will know where the territory is by locating a “bear tree.” These are trees found along trails and other areas where bears like to visit. The tree, or sometimes a building or park sign, will be repeatedly clawed, bitten and rubbed. It might even be marked by a bear’s urine scent. Black bears are sexually mature at 3 years of age and mating occurs in June and July. Females breed every other year and give birth to two or three cubs in January or February while they are still in their winter sleep. At birth, cubs weigh 7-12 ounces. They remain with the mother one year. Then in the spring she chases them off so she can breed again.

  Bears have been an important part of history in Wisconsin. The Native Americans treated the bear hunt with great ceremony and respect. They prized bear skins for robes and the meat and oil for food. The settlers also placed great value on bear meat and especially sought the bearskins, which they used for clothing and bedding. As more settlers moved into Wisconsin, however, there was conflict between people and bears. Bounty systems were set up to encourage the killing of bears, and fur traders paid high prices for bearskins. This large-scale killing caused the numbers of bears to decrease. Logging and settlement also reduced the bear’s habitat and numbers. Until 1985, unlimited and increasing harvests were causing the bear population to rapidly decline. Today, wildlife biologists study bear populations and their habitat and monitor hunting so that population levels remain healthy.

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  Whitetail deer

  The deer probably was the most important game animal throughout the Midwest. It adapted well to the changed habitat that followed logging and settler agriculture, and its home range was about 1-2 miles. Indians used the deer for food, and made clothing from the hide. Deer hair was used for ornamentation, bones and antlers for tools, hooves for glue and ornamentation, and sinew for thread. Photo by Scott Bauer, courtesy of United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).

  Moose

  The habitat of the moose was in the northern Great Lakes country where there were forests, bogs, and streams. The moose was an important game animal, especially for the Ojibwa, who lived in this northern region. The 5-6 ½ feet tall moose fed on high grasses and scrubs, as well as pine cones and, in summer, small aquatic plants. In the 19th century, settlers and loggers created an ideal habitat for the whitetail deer, who moved into moose territory and infected them with a deer parasite. The moose population dramatically declined, but in recent years moose have been reintroduced into the Great Lakes area. Photo courtesy of United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Forest Service.

  Muskrat

  This was one of the smaller animals hunted for food and fur throughout the Midwest. The muskrat lived in wetlands in or near marshes, streams, and ponds. Excluding the tail, which they used as a rudder when swimming, the muskrat was 18-25 inches long. Muskrats constructed their burrows above water level with the opening under water. Photo by R. Town, courtesy of United States Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS).

• 1 2021-04-19T17:20:02+00:00 Tribal Enrollment 1 image_header 2021-04-19T17:20:02+00:00

  Above: Census of Mille Lacs Band of Chippewa, 1849. Drawing by Nago-nabe in Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, Historical and Statistical Information, Respecting the History, Condition and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States (Newberry Library, Ayer 250 .S3h 1851, v. 2, pl. 54). View catalog record

  Tribes have the right to determine their own membership. These criteria for enrollment vary from tribe to tribe. In the Midwest, the criteria are based on descendancy, that is, descent from an individual on a particular roll, as well as, in some cases, blood quantum and/or residency of the applicant or his/her parents. Most tribes also have constitutional provisions for adoption of members. Individuals who are enrolled in a particular tribe have rights that include hunting, fishing, and gathering on tribal land (or in some cases off-reservation), as well as per capita payments if the tribe distributes income from court cases or businesses. Other benefits include preferential hiring for tribal jobs, entitlement to certain services, the right to vote and run for tribal office, use of tribal land, and preferential selection for tribal housing.

  A tribal roll is based on a particular “base roll,” that varies from tribe to tribe. In the mid-19th century, community membership depended on residence and participation, but when treaties were made, “annuity rolls” were prepared by the government, listing the tribal members who would receive goods and payments. At first these written rolls had names but no “blood quantums.”

  What do Indian censuses reveal about U.S. Indian policy?

  Census of Mille Lacs Band of Chippewas, 1849

  Each Ojibwa family is represented by the head of family, symbolized by a pictograph of his Ojibwa name. The members of this village nearly all belonged to the same clan. There were 108 individuals (represented by vertical lines) in 34 families. Some of the names of family heads are: 2, Valley; 4, Shooter; 5, Catfish; 34, Axe. At this time, federal officials dealt with men in a village and did not consider it important to record the individual identities of women and children. Drawing by Nago-nabe in Henry Rowe Schoolcraft, Historical and Statistical Information, Respecting the History, Condition and Prospects of the Indian Tribes of the United States (Newberry Library, Ayer 250 .S3h 1851, v. 2, pl. 54).

  White Earth Ojibwa Census, 1885

  The Ojibwa were listed according to their band or village affiliation. The leader ("Chief") of each village appeared at the top of the village list. Officials dealt largely through band leaders at this time. Families were listed together but individuals were referred to by their personal Ojibwa names, not their father's name. Note that the census of the Otter Tail Pillager band began on this page. The Chief's name appeared, then individuals organized by family. The Chief's wife, two daughters, and three sons were listed below his name. Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indian Census Rolls, 1885-1940 (Newberry Library, Microfilm 440, roll 649).

  Wisconsin Winnebago (Ho-Chunk) Census, 1910

  Federal officials wanted Indians to use English names, and they considered wives to be dependents of their husbands. Note that Snider Bear's Winnebago name and English surname "Bear" were given, and his wife Nancy and children were listed with "Bear" as their surname. There was no mention of "blood degree." Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indian Census Rolls, 1885-1940 (Newberry Library, Microfilm 440, roll 671).

  Wisconsin Winnebago (Ho-Chunk) Census, 1928

  Note that the Winnebago names did not appear on the census. See, for example, Snider Bear (3) and his son George (4). Note also that there still was no mention of "blood degree" Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indian Census Rolls, 1885-1940 (Newberry Library, Microfilm 440, roll 570).

  Wisconsin Winnebago (Ho-Chunk) Census, 1929

  On this census, the family members were identified by the father's English surname and the "blood quantum" was given as "Full" or "Mixed." Note that Snider Bear (2) and son (3) are "F" (Full). Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indian Census Rolls, 1885-1940 (Newberry Library, Microfilm 440, roll 570, p. 1).

  Wisconsin Winnebago (Ho-Chunk) Census, 1929(a)

  Note the blood quantum of the Sam Blowsnake family members: Sam (92) was "Mixed" (M), his wife Emma (93) was "Full" (F), and their children (94-97) are "Mixed" (p. 8). Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indian Census Rolls, 1885-1940 (Newberry Library, Microfilm 440, roll 570) .

  White Earth Ojibwa Census, 1937

  Compare this census to the 1885 White Earth Census. Here individuals were not listed as members of bands headed by Chiefs. Rather, individuals were grouped into families according to the head of household's English surname (listed alphabetically) or sometimes individuals were listed with an English given name and their father's Ojibwa name as surname. Their "blood degree" was given. A few individuals were living off the reservation. The individuals' allotment numbers also were recorded. By the 1930s, the federal government began identifying individuals by blood degree and increasingly attempted to deal with individuals rather than families or groups of families. Note the Harry Antill family. The wife and children have the father's English surname. Harry's blood degree is 3/8; the wife's, 4/4; and the childrens', 11/16. Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indian Census Rolls, 1885-1940 (Newberry Library, Microfilm 440, roll 75).

  In Michigan, the Ottawa and the lower Michigan Potawatomi tribes, having been denied the right to organize an Indian Reorganization Act (IRA) government in the 1930s, use late 19th and early 20th century rolls as base rolls. The federal government used these rolls to distribute annuity goods and payments based on treaties. Tribal members today must be able to trace descent from an enrollee on the base roll. The Hannahville Potawatomi in upper Michigan did organize an IRA government, and their base roll was made in 1936. The Ojibwas in lower and upper Michigan have base rolls prepared at the time they accepted IRA governments (but based on older rolls), except the Lac Vieux Desert tribe prepared its roll after being federally recognized in 1988.

  Listen to John Low discuss the enrollment requirements for his tribe, the Pokagon Potawatomi

  John Low on Pokagon enrollment. Production by Mike Media Group, 2009. View transcript | View at Internet Archive

  In Wisconsin, the Ojibwa tribes and the Oneida take as their base rolls those prepared at the time they accepted IRA governments as well as earlier allotment rolls, and the Forest Potawatomi also use a roll prepared from a census taken in conjunction with their acceptance of an IRA government. The Ho-Chunk and Stockbridge-Munsee tribes use base rolls derived from early 20th century annuity or allotment rolls. The Menominee base roll was prepared at the time of the Menominee Restoration, but based on older rolls.

  Listen to Josh Gerzetich discuss the Oneida’s blood quantum requirement

  Josh Gerzetich on Oneida enrollment. Production by Mike Media Group, 2010. View transcript | View at Internet Archive

  The Minnesota Ojibwa use base rolls based on 1941 annuity rolls prepared for treaty payments. The Dakotas use rolls from the time of the IRA, or older rolls. Also, the Prairie Island and Lower Sioux Dakota communities allow Dakotas enrolled elsewhere to transfer their enrollment status to Prairie Island or Lower Sioux.

  Marriages between people from different tribes are quite common. The children of these marriages may find it difficult to meet enrollment requirements of any tribe.

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  Hunting Deer, Fall 1997

  Mille Lacs Tribal Members David and Mary Sam participated in the first off-reservation deer season in the Treaty of 1837 ceded area. Tribal members are entitled to obtain hunting licenses to hunt on and off the reservation in compliance with tribal codes. The tribes have game wardens to monitor on-reservation hunting. Hunting in the ceded territory is monitored by the Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission game wardens. Infractions are handled in tribal court. GLIFWC is an organization of 11 Ojibwa tribes. Photo courtesy of Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission (GLIFWC).

  Health Department Wellness Program, Match-e-be-nash-she-wish Pottawatomi

  Tribal members are eligible for a range of services from the tribal health department. Here a tribal employee checks a patient’s blood pressure. Photo courtesy of Match-e-be-nash-she-wish Band of Pottawatomi.

  Housing for Elders, 2008

  These students at Leech Lake Tribal College are building a two-bedroom home for elderly tribal members at Red Lake Reservation, where there is a severe housing shortage. The carpentry students are participants in an Americorps program that targets minority and low-income students (including non-Indians). The college welcomes the program because the students’ attendance and grades have improved. Photo courtesy of Tom Robertson, Minnesota Public Radio.

  Head Start Program, Leech Lake Reservation

  Children who are tribal members are eligible for Head Start programs operated by the tribe. These programs stress culturally relevant activities. Photo courtesy of Gaming Department, Leech Lake Reservation

  Michigan Tribes

  Tribes revise their constitutions from time to time. This chart is based on the constitutions as dated in parentheses. Source: National Law Library (NARF) (http://www.narf.org/nill/triballaw/az.htm) and Native American Constitution and Law Digitization Project (http://thorpe.ou.edu).

  Wisconsin Tribes

  Minnesota Tribes