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  The new United States government followed the British tradition in its relations with Indian Nations: treaties with Indians had the same force as with foreign nations and aboriginal title was recognized and land obtained through purchase. The 13 original states that formed a compact in 1781 signed treaties for peace and alliance. In 1789, the United States became the authorized party and continued to negotiate treaties of peace and protection with tribes. In the 18th century, American leaders beginning with George Washington decided to compensate Indians for “land cessions” rather than to attempt expensive and difficult wars. As the years progressed, the U. S. signed many treaties through which Indians ceded land in return for guarantees of reserved lands, continual rights to use resources in their homeland, and payment in the form of goods and services. As settlers pushed into Indian country, the U. S. negotiated treaties of “removal” in which some tribes agreed to exchange their land for other land farther west. Other treaties were negotiated in which the size of reservations was reduced.

  Do you want to learn more about land cessions in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota?

  Ohio Cessions

  In 1795 the Treaty of Greenville established a boundary between the tribes occupying the Ohio River country and the new United States. In effect, the Wyandot, Delaware, and Shawnee who had considered this their territory and some Ottawa, Ojibwa, Potawatomi, Miami, and Illinois groups who had claims there ceded Section 11 (in pink on this map) to the U. S. They reserved the right to hunt in the ceded area. In 1805, land in northern Ohio (Sections 53 and 54) was ceded by these tribes as the settlers pushed westward. In 1817, another cession by these tribes (Section 87) removed most of the Indians from Ohio. Small tracts were reserved to Shawnee, Wyandot, and Delaware leaders, and the Indians reserved the right to hunt and tap maple trees in the ceded territory. Charles C. Royce, Indian Land Cessions in the United States (Newberry Library, Ayer 301 .A2 1896-97, pt. 2, pl. 156).

  Indiana Cessions, 1803-1832

  Indiana became a territory in 1800, and the Miami and Potawatomi struggled to remain there in the face of American efforts to settle the area. In 1803 (Section 26) and 1804 (Section 49), the U. S. obtained cessions in southwest Indiana from a few Miami and other leaders of tribes claiming joint occupancy. In 1805, at the Treaty of Grouseland, the Miamis ceded part of their lands in southeast Indiana but retained rights to lands on the "Wabash and its waters" (Section 56), and this cession was followed by another in southwest Indiana in 1808 (Section 71, to which Potawatomis and Delawares ceded rights, as well). In 1818, the Miami ceded their homeland in central Indiana (Section 99). They retained six village-site reservations (see Section 258) and several individually owned tracts. Indiana became a state in 1818 and Americans continued to settle the area, pushing the Indians out. The Potawatomi also had claimed joint occupancy of some lands in Indiana, which they ceded in the 1805 and 1808 treaties. In 1828, Potawatomis ceded a large part of their country in northeast Indiana (Section 146), but individuals retained sections of land for their villages. In 1832, the Potawatomi ceded more of their land, in northwest Indiana (Section 180), reserving land for their villages there, but between 1834 and 1836 most Indians were pressured to move west, out of Indiana. Charles C. Royce, Indian Land Cessions in the United States (Newberry Library, Ayer 301 .A2 1896-97, pt. 2, pl. 126).

  Illinois Cessions (1), 1803-05

  The United States began to obtain land cessions in what is now the state of Illinois early in the nineteenth century, despite the guarantees given Indians at the Treaty of Greenville. In 1803, the Illinois (Kaskaskia) groups were in a weakened position and agreed to cede all their land (Section 48) except a small reserve. They retained the right to hunt on the ceded lands. In 1805, a group of Miami ceded their rights to land in southeast Illinois (Section 63) (and southwest Indiana), but retained "forever" a very small reservation and the right to hunt on the ceded land. In 1804 the United States obtained the consent of an unauthorized delegation of Sauk and Fox men to the cession of their lands in western Illinois (Section 50). The U. S. guaranteed the Sauk and Fox rights to hunt there. The tribal leaders repudiated this cession as soon as they learned about it, but the United States considered it legitimate. Settlers flocked into the region, making it very difficult for Indians to remain. Charles C. Royce, Indian Land Cessions in the United States (Newberry Library, Ayer 301 .A2 1896-97, pt. 2, pl. 124).

  Illinois Cessions (2), 1816-33

  Settlement of Illinois progressed to the point that it became a territory in 1809 and a state in 1818. The United States set about to get cessions from tribes who had a claim to lands ceded earlier by other tribes and to obtain cessions to land in northern Illinois. In 1816, the Ojibwa and their Ottawa and Potawatomi allies ceded their rights to land in western Illinois, which had earlier been ceded by the Sauk and Fox (Section 77). This territory was part of their homeland. In 1819, the Kickapoo (who had largely withdrawn already) ceded their rights to central Illinois (Section 110) in return for lands west of the Mississippi River (to be "forever" theirs). At the Treaty of Prairie du Chien in 1829, the Ojibwa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi of Illinois ceded their remaining lands in northern Illinois (Sections 148 and 149), retaining small reservations and the right to hunt on ceded land. In 1833, at the Treaty of Chicago, the Potawatomi and their allies the Ojibwa and Ottawa ceded their lands in northeast Illinois (Section 187) and were assigned a reservation west of the Mississippi. Few Indians were able to remain in Illinois as the settler population grew. Charles C. Royce, Indian Land Cessions in the United States (Newberry Library, Ayer 301 .A2 1896-97, pt. 2, pl. 125).

  Michigan Cessions

  At the Treaty of Greenville in 1795, Ottawa, Ojibwa, and Potawatomi allies ceded small sections of land around Detroit (# 21, 22, 23), but these cessions did not affect their ability to subsist. In 1805 Michigan became a territory, and settlers were attracted to the area. In 1807 these three tribes (and some Wyandot) ceded a large area in southeast Michigan (#66), but retained reservations at the sites of their villages, as well as the right to hunt and fish on the ceded land. Their intent was to live peacefully as neighbors of the Americans. But as Americans expanded north, the Saginaw Ojibwa were pressured to cede a large region (#111) in 1819. They retained reservations where they had main villages and places that were important for subsistence. They also retained the right to hunt, fish, and "make sugar" on ceded lands. In 1821, the U. S. pressured the Potawatomi (and Ottawa and Ojibwa relatives associated with them), who were living in south-central Michigan, to cede land (#117). The Potawatomi retained land where they had villages (for example, the Natowasepe and Matchebenarhshewish communities), as well as the right to hunt on the ceded land. Just six years later, they were pressured to cede some of these reserves. In 1833, the Potawatomis in Michigan agreed to cede their land (#188, 190), but some villages retained the right to resettle in northern Michigan (a right they never could exercise). By 1836, settlers were pushing to the northwest and the U. S. continued to pursue its goal of removing Indians from Michigan. That year, Ottawa leaders were brought to Washington, where they ceded most of their territory (#205) but retained small reservations (including the Little Traverse Bay and Grand Traverse Bay communities), which they were guaranteed for five years (but they managed to retain these lands into the 1850s). The Ottawa also retained the right to hunt on ceded land. Michigan became a state in 1837, and the U. S. met the Ojibwas living in upper Michigan (and Wisconsin) in a treaty council at La Pointe in 1842, where the Lake Superior Ojibwa ceded territory (#261) and agreed to eventually move farther west into modern-day Wisconsin and Minnesota. They retained the right to hunt on ceded land. Charles C. Royce, Indian Land Cessions in the United States (Newberry Library, Ayer 301 .A2 1896-97, pt. 2, pl. 136).

  Wisconsin Cessions

  After the policy of removal was instituted in 1830, the United States began to aggressively pursue land cessions in what is now the state of Wisconsin. The U.S. obtained three large cessions in eastern Wisconsin: from the Menominee in 1831 (#160), who reserved land for themselves and agreed on a piece of land for the New York Indians; from the Potawatomi in 1833 (at the Treaty of Chicago) (#187), most of whom agreed to move west; and from the Winnebago (Ho-Chunk) in 1832 (#174), who ceded much of their land and agreed to move west of the Mississippi. Wisconsin became a territory in 1836, and Indians were pressured to cede more land. In 1837, at the treaty of St. Peters, the Ojibwa in western Wisconsin ceded land (#242), but they reserved the right to hunt, fish and gather wild rice in the ceded area. That same year, at a conference in Washington, Winnebago representatives ceded more of their land in Wisconsin (#245). A delegation of Dakotas also came to Washington in 1837, to negotiate peace with the Sauk and Fox people, they believed, but they were pressured into signing a treaty that ceded all their land in Wisconsin (#243). In 1842, at the Treaty of La Pointe, the Ojibwas living in Wisconsin and Minnesota ceded more land (#261) and agreed to move west, while reserving the right to hunt and fish on ceded land. In 1848, the same year that Wisconsin became a state, the Menominee agreed to cede the remainder of their land in central Wisconsin (#271), after they were subjected to threats, but they subsequently refused to actually leave Wisconsin. Charles C. Royce, Indian Land Cessions in the United States (Newberry Library, Ayer 301 .A2 1896-97, pt. 2, pl. 171).

  Minnesota Cessions

  The 1837 treaties with the Dakota (#243) and Ojibwa (#242) had ceded some land in what is now eastern Minnesota, with the Ojibwas reserving rights to hunt, fish, and gather. The United States wanted more land for settlers, so in 1847 treaties with Ojibwas were negotiated in which lands in central Minnesota were ceded (#268 and #269). Then in 1851, the Dakotas were pressured into ceding their lands in Minnesota at the treaties of Traverse des Sioux and Mendota (#289). After the cession of land in eastern, central, and southern Minnesota, the United States began to negotiate cessions in the north. In 1854 at the Treaty of La Pointe, several Ojibwa bands ceded land (#332), but insisted on reservations in what is now Upper Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. In 1855, the western bands of Ojibwa were brought to Washington and pressured into ceding most of their land (#357), but they also secured reservations. In 1863, western Ojibwa bands ceded land (#445) but reserved some (#446). And in 1866, the Bois Forte band of Ojibwa ceded land (#482) but retained a reservation. These small Ojibwa reservations in Minnesota soon were surrounded by settler communities. Charles C. Royce, Indian Land Cessions in the United States (Newberry Library, Ayer 301 .A2 1896-97, pt. 2, pl. 140).

  What happened during the treaty negotiations?

  Treaty of Greenville

  This council took place in the aftermath of a war between the Indians in the Midwest and the United States. In the Battle of Fallen Timbers, Maj. Gen. Anthony Wayne had defeated the allied warriors, but the United States needed a peaceful settlement. The Indian leaders, realizing that they could not count on help from the British, wanted to make peace in order to protect as much of their land as possible. Six months before the council opened in June 1795, Indian leaders began visiting posts to exchange prisoners and socialize in preparation for the council, which was held at Fort Greenville on the Miami River in modern-day Ohio. The Indians in attendance camped outside the fort. Indian delegations came from eleven tribes, bringing gifts and prisoners. The U.S. soldiers greeted them with a cannon salute and they returned rifle fire. Wayne referred to the Indian leaders as "brothers" and smoked with them. Negotiations began July 15 under an arbor with about 1200 Indians in attendance: Shawnees, Delawares, and Wyandots, who relied most on the lands in Ohio; Potawatomis, who were the most numerous and strongest militarily; Miamis, mostly from Indiana; Ottawas and Ojibwas; a few of the Illinois who lived west of Ohio; and a few Kickapoos. Leaders from each tribe signed the treaty on August 3. The U. S. obtained the Indians' consent to claim two thirds of the modern state of Ohio (as well as 16 small tracts of land north of this boundary, largely for posts) and acknowledged the tribes' right to hunt on the ceded land and their right to the lands they retained "so long as they please." The U. S. paid for the ceded land: $20,000 in goods upon the signing, as well as "perpetual annuities" of $1,000 to the Shawnee and each of the other tribes with a stake in the ceded lands and less money to the others. The Americans distributed the treaty goods and gave medals to the chiefs. The Treaty of Greenville set the pattern for subsequent treaties, repudiating the "right of conquest" theory and, instead, acknowledging the Indians' right to lands they occupied. The Indian leaders believed that their homes outside the ceded territory were secure. But by 1800 President Thomas Jefferson was pressing for more cessions north of the Greenville boundary. In 1796, there were 5,000 Americans in Ohio; in 1810, 230,000; and in 1820, 581,000. This painting is credited to one of Wayne's aides, but it is misleading. The Indian camp was huge, but the painting makes it appear that only a few Indians were involved. Also, the clothing is inappropriate for a formal council, where the Indian leaders would have worn European-style coats ornamented with lace and other finery to indicate their high status. Courtesy of Chicago History Museum (P85-1914.0001).

  Page from Treaty of Greenville

  he Indian leaders did not write their names but did use pictographs to indicate their clan membership. They represented not only their clan but also their village or a group of villages. Courtesy of National Archives.

  Treaty of Prairie du Chien, 1825

  The American negotiators called a council in the summer, inviting the tribes who made war on each other in the upper Mississippi and Minnesota River region: Ojibwa, Dakota, Winnebago (Ho-Chunk), Menominee, Potawatomi, Ottawa, Sauk and Fox. The Americans wanted to take over the trade from the British and facilitate trade and control of the region by suppressing hostilities. Each tribal delegation made a spectacular grand entry to impress the others with dances, flags, and discharge of firearms. The tribes were feasted and given gifts, such as coats and medals for leaders, shirts and knives for other men, and clothing and other goods for women and children. The Americans wanted a line dividing Minnesota and Wisconsin in half, with Ojibwa territory north of the line and Dakota country south of it. The Indian speakers supported peace but objected to the American idea of boundaries between the tribes to prevent clashes, arguing that in their tradition access to land was shared. Notwithstanding, the tribes signed this treaty, but hostilities were only temporarily suspended. Game was not scarce at this time and, while American gifts were appreciated, treaty payments were not necessary and the United States was not strong enough militarily to enforce the treaty. James Otto Lewis painted the scene in 1825. Indian treaty councils like this one were recorded by artists because they were important national events. Painting by James Otto Lewis in James Otto Lewis, North American Aboriginal Port-folio (Newberry Library, Ayer 250.6 .L67 1838, no. 1).

  Treaty of Butte des Morts, 1827

  The treaty ground was on the Fox River in Wisconsin. Commissioners Lewis Cass and Thomas McKenney arrived there in August to meet with the Ojibwa, Menominee, and Winnebago representatives. There also were some "New York Indians" (Oneidas and Stockbridge-Munsees) there. The Indians camped apart from the U. S. soldiers and officials (the Indian camp is shown on the left and the U. S. camp, on the right). The commissioners wanted to establish a border between the Ojibwas and the Menominees, left undecided at the 1825 Prairie du Chien council because the Menominees refused to acknowledge the authority of the Menominee chiefs who were there. Four Legs, a Winnebago (Ho-Chunk) chief refuted the idea of borders, arguing that the tribes used the land in common as "brothers." The U. S. wanted boundaries so that land cessions could more easily be accomplished; it would be easier to purchase land from one tribe than from several. The Ojibwa, Menominee, and Winnebago chiefs agreed to the border. The U. S. officials appointed Oshkosh chief of the Menominee, although at the time he was not so recognized by the tribe. Another issue to be resolved was the settlement of the New York Indians on Menominee and Winnebago lands. Again, Four Legs tried to point out that the New York Indians had permission to temporarily live on these lands: the Menominee and Winnebago had agreed to "lend and not sell." But they were pressured to agree to allow the President to decide the issue. A third issue was the ownership of about 200,000 acres of land in the Green Bay region. At the council, food and gifts were distributed to all, including New York Indians. The U. S. considered the small payment made at the council as payment for the acreage, but the Menominees and Winnebagos did not. This was an issue in subsequent years. Painting by James Otto Lewis in James Otto Lewis, North American Aboriginal Port-folio (Newberry Library, Ayer 250.6 .L67 1838, no. 1).

  Treaty of Chicago, 1833

  The United States made this treaty with the several villages of Potawatomi in Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan, in which a number of Ojibwas and Ottawas had settled. Between 6,000 and 8,000 Indians gathered at the small village of Chicago to meet the commissioners, including the Governor of Michigan Territory, George Porter. The United States intended to get the consent of these people to cede all their land east of the Mississippi River and to move west of that river. The Potawatomi villages had different interests and could not come to an agreement, but except for the Michigan Potawatomi, they agreed to cede their lands for annuity payments. Removal of most of the Potawatomi took several more years. The Potawatomi in southwest Michigan (identified by "religious creed") ceded land but obtained an agreement that they could remain. The government intended to remove them to northern Michigan but this did not happen. These "Pokagon" Potawatomi and others who hid from officials remained in southwest Michigan. Painting by Lawrence C. Earle, c. 1902. Earle's representation of the participants with Plains-style clothing and dwellings is inaccurate. Courtesy of Chicago History Museum (P85-1933.48).

  Council with Kee-Wau-Nay's Village, July 1837

  The Indian Agent Col. A. C. Pepper had summoned the people in one Potawatomi village on Bruce Lake to a council, the object of which was to encourage or pressure them to leave Indiana and move west. These Potawatomis had signed a treaty in 1836 ceding most of their land in Indiana but reserving the right to occupy their villages for two years. The U. S. government promised them a reservation in Kansas Territory. Agent Pepper promised them they would "prosper" in the far west, that the U. S. would make them comfortable during the emigration, and in their new home. The village orator Nas-waw-kay, interpreted by Bourassa (a Métis), represented the Potawatomis' views: They were glad about the offered protection and the unity between the two peoples. In the Treaty of Greenville, their lands were guaranteed to them and yet now they were destitute. Nas-waw-kay presented a string of wampum to Pepper and stated that they wanted their "Father" to listen. They were deeply distressed about the land cession. The U. S. had promised them prosperity before and they were disappointed. They had once been promised that they would not have to move west. They understood that the President had made a sacred promise that they could stay on their lands for two more years. They did not want to move. "What more can I say?" he concluded. He asked for more time for his people to deliberate and requested that they be allowed to send a delegation to Washington. But eventually Nas-waw-kay and the village chief Kee-wau-nay (Prairie Chicken) agreed to emigrate. Forty-seven Potawatomis from this village left that summer and reached Kansas in October, but most returned the next year, even more destitute. In 1838 many still remained in Indiana. George Winter painted the scene at the council. Nas-waw-kay (wearing a white coat) is standing in front of the seated chiefs Wee-wis-saw, Iowa, Pashpoho and M'jo-quis. The war chief Kee-wau-nay is sitting at the base of the tree on the left. Bourassa (with black hair) is standing at the base of the flagpole. Col. Pepper is seated in front of the table, which is covered with a white blanket representing peace. Winter commented that this was a very stressful time in the village as the people did not want to leave. Courtesy of Tippecanoe County Historical Association.

  Treaty of Traverse des Sioux, 1851

  The land cessions made by the Dakotas in the 1830s were not a significant hardship, but the advancing American frontier caught up with the Dakotas in the 1850s. Wisconsin became a state in 1848 and Minnesota became a territory in 1849. Congress was determined to remove Indians to make way for settlers. The American negotiators arrived by steamboat at the council to treat with the Sisseton and Wahpeton divisions in the summer of 1851. They brought a great deal of food and liquor to feast the Dakotas at their large camp for three weeks while they waited for all the villages to arrive. When their terms were resisted, the Americans browbeat and threatened the Dakotas. The Americans had wanted to pay two and a half cents an acre, but the traders convinced their Dakota relatives to insist on ten cents an acre. The Dakotas wanted the treaty because game was scarce at this time and they needed the annual provisions they would receive for signing it. But they insisted on obtaining a reservation in their homeland. They also wanted the negotiators to promise that Congress would not change the terms of the treaty (as had happened in the past). The Americans distributed gifts (blankets, knives, tobacco, ribbons, and paint) and the pipe was passed from man to man. The treaty was translated by the missionary Stephen Riggs. In this treaty these Dakota ceded all their lands in Minnesota for a reservation on the Minnesota River, and $1,665,000 plus additional aid to be paid over a 50 year period. The American negotiators then proceeded to Mendota where they met the Mdewakanton and Wahpakute divisions, who signed a similar treaty. In Washington, the Senate eliminated the provision for a reservation. But since this amendment had to be approved by the Dakotas, the Dakotas were able to obtain a promise from the President that they could stay on the reserved lands. Painting by Frank Blackwell Mayer, 1885. Courtesy of Minnesota Historical Society.

  What happened at the Treaties of Traverse des Sioux and Mendota?

  1851 Treaty. From Dakota Conflict, “The Great Treaty”. Courtesy of Twin Cities Public Television – TPT and Minnesota Video Vault, 1993 View transcript

  From the perspective of Indians, these treaties were a means of preserving themselves as a people. They gave treaties the same symbolic significance that Americans gave other charters of freedom, such as the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution. As time passed, leaders, shocked by what they saw as treaty violations by the United States, had to address their followers’ views about these treaties: that interpreters had misrepresented terms, treaties sometimes were signed by people without authority to do so, verbal promises were not always represented in the written documents, treaties often were coerced, and politicians in Washington sometimes arbitrarily altered treaties signed in councils elsewhere.

  Who were some of the important leaders during the treaty era?

  Black Hoof (Catecahassa)

  Black Hoof (Catecahassa) was a Shawnee leader who was born about 1740. As a young man, he was an experienced warrior who fought in the French and Indian and Revolutionary Wars. He fought against the Americans in an effort to hold on to the Ohio country but after the tribes surrendered, he signed the Treaty of Greenville and committed himself to accommodation with the Americans. He was the civil chief of his village in northwest Ohio in the early 19th century and went to Washington in 1802 and 1806-07 to ask for agricultural assistance in order to transform his village's economy to be self-supporting in the post-fur trade era. He was among the leaders who agreed to land cessions in Ohio in 1805 and 1817 in order to obtain annuities, assistance, and land reserves. He opposed the resistance movement led by Tecumseh and the Shawnee warrior Blue Jacket, providing assistance to the Americans and preventing most Shawnees from joining. The Americans promoted centralization of authority in the Ohio villages and Black Hoof was able to become the head chief of the Ohio Shawnee (who had been organized into several politically autonomous villages), with the ability to redistribute annuities and assign land. He welcomed Quaker missionaries who helped his village develop agriculture. Shawnees became prosperous in the 1820s, raising livestock for sale and operating a mill to produce commercial cornmeal. They tried to operate a commercial salt works, but the Americans prevented this venture. Their success made American settlers resentful, which contributed to political pressure for the removal of the Shawnees from Ohio. Most Shawnees agreed to removal. Black Hoof was the leader of the 1,000 who remained. After his death in 1831, the Ohio Shawnee were forced west of the Mississippi River. Painting by Charles Bird King, c. 1820, in Thomas Loraine McKenney and James Hall, History of the Indian Tribes of North America (Newberry Library, Ayer 249 .M2 1848, v. 1).

  Topinabee (or He Who Sits Quietly)

  Topinabee (or He Who Sits Quietly) was one of the main village chiefs (wkamek) of the St. Joseph River Potawatomi. Born about 1760, Topinabee (or Topenebi) was from the Bear Clan and pursued a policy of accommodation with Americans, refusing to support Tecumseh during the War of 1812. He signed the Treaty of Greenville in 1795, at a time when the Potawatomi were very dominant in Indiana and southern Michigan. One-fourth of the signers of this treaty were Potawatomis. Topinabee's strategy was to avoid ceding land his people needed but to assist the Americans with other cessions, thereby obtaining much needed annuities and assistance in the post-fur trade era. In 1818 he signed the treaty of 1818, in which the Potawatomi ceded the Wabash valley in return for perpetual annuities. The Potawatomi did not want to cede southwestern Michigan in 1821 but after threats from the Americans, the elderly Topinabee (principal chief and first signer) and other chiefs, including Leopold Pokagon, signed the treaty and received small reservations. Since 1801 Topinabee had shown an interest in receiving agricultural instruction. Before his death in 1826, he moved his village near a Baptist mission on the St. Joseph River where his people could receive instruction. Painting by Van Sanden, ca. 1820s-30s, courtesy of the Center for History, South Bend, Indiana.

  Jean Baptiste Richardville

  Jean Baptiste Richardville was born in 1760, the son of a French trader, Antoine Joseph Drouet de Richardville, and a Miami woman who was the sister of a village chief, Pacanne. Also known as Peshewa or Wildcat, he was culturally Miami and became a skilled trader and businessman, working with his mother, also a trader. He lived in a multicultural, trading village on Maumee River in northern Indiana. He signed the Treaty of Greenville in 1795 and several other treaties in which parts of southern Indiana were ceded in return for annuities. Richardville, as well as Miamis in general, did not support Tecumseh. By 1818, the Miamis needed annuities to survive and they signed the treaty of 1818, ceding most of central Indiana. At this time, Richardville was the main leader, having replaced Pacanne, who died in 1815. He was a wealthy and successful trader and businessman, who used his wealth to help needy Miamis and his business contacts and skills as a negotiator to try to prevent the federal government from removing the Miami from Indiana. In 1840, as the principal chief he signed the treaty in which the Miami ceded all their land in Indiana, but he obtained title to almost 5,000 acres of land where in subsequent years landless Miamis settled. He died in 1841. His efforts helped the Miami tribe retain a home in Indiana. James Otto Lewis, North American Aboriginal Port-folio (Newberry Library, Ayer 250.6 .L67 1838, no. 1).

  Shinganbaywassin (Figured Stone)

  Shinganbaywassin (Figured Stone) was born about 1744. He was from a large prominent Ojibwa family and a member of the Crane clan in the Sault Ste. Marie area and had a distinguished career as a warrior. He helped the British during the War of 1812. He was at the 1820 treaty when his people made an alliance with the Americans and were pressured into ceding a small portion of their land for a fort. He also signed the Treaty of Prairie du Chien in 1825 as "first chief" of the Lake Superior Ojibwa groups. There he reaffirmed the "father" status of the U. S. president and spoke to the Ojibwa's desire to get along well with the Americans as they had with the British: "The Great Spirit made us all." He also signed the Treaty of Fond du Lac the next year, which secured annuities for his people, and the treaty of Butte de Morts in 1827 when the U. S. tried to reinforce the agreements over intertribal boundaries made at Prairie du Chien. His portrait was painted at the Fond du Lac treaty by James O. Lewis. He wears a presidential medal, which was a gift he received as a signer of the treaty. Figured Stone was a village chief (Ogama), a high-ranking member of the Medicine Lodge, and a seer ("medicine man"). He died in 1828. Painting by James Otto Lewis at the Fond du Lac treaty in James Otto Lewis, North American Aboriginal Port-folio (Newberry Library, Ayer 250.6 .L67 1838, no. 1).

  Shin-gós-se-moon (Big Sail)

  This portrait was painted by George Catlin about 1836, probably at Mackinac (an island in Lake Huron), where some Ottawas were living amid Ojibwas. Shin-gós-se-moon was from the Little Traverse division of Ottawa. He was a village leader (ogemuk) and is wearing a medal he received from the British, with whom Ottawas traded until the Americans took control of the region. Ottawa ogemuks had to be skilled speakers who lived respectable lives. They expressed the group's consensus rather than telling people what to do. Under pressure from the Americans, the Ottawas decided to cede some land in return for permanent land and support for agriculture. In 1836 a delegation of leaders, including Shin-gós-se-moon, went to Washington DC and signed a treaty. They ceded most of their land in Michigan but retained the land where their towns were located and the right to hunt and fish on public lands. They intended to remain in Michigan and be good neighbors to the Americans. In fact, the treaty called for agricultural assistance and help with commercial fishing. The treaty was carried back to the towns to be read so that the leaders had the people's support. But after the treaty was signed, it was amended by the Senate so that the Ottawa land would only be reserved for five years. Great pressure was put on the Ottawa to move west to Kansas. The Ottawa villages struggled to remain in Michigan. Many went to Manitoulin Island. Shin-gós-se-moon's people went with him from Burt Lake to Manitoulin Island in 1839 or 1840, where they received gifts from British traders. Courtesy of Smithsonian American Art Museum, Gift of Mrs. Joseph Harrison, Jr.

  Naw Kaw (Wood)

  Naw Kaw (Wood) was a Winnebago (Ho-Chunk) born about 1735. As a young man, he was a warrior, but he became the head peace chief of his village and thereafter had to refrain from violence. In Winnebago political life, there were two head chiefs, the civil or peace chief, who was from the "upper" division or a bird clan, and the war chief from the Bear clan in the "lower" division. The peace chief resolved disputes, generously helped the needy families, and generated consensus. His lodge was a sanctuary and his symbol of office, the pipe. The war chief carried a club and led the village police force. Naw Kaw was a peace chief from the Thunder clan, who went to St. Louis in 1816 as the head of a delegation sent to make an alliance of peace with the Americans after the end of the War of 1812, in which the Winnebago supported the British. He represented only his village but had immense prestige. The Winnebago delegation accepted the protection of the United States, shifting their loyalty from the British. Naw kaw signed the treaty of 1828, in which the Winnebago agreed on territorial boundaries. In 1829 he went with a delegation to Washington DC, where Charles Bird King painted his portrait (note that he carries his pipe and wears three peace medals given him by U. S. officials at peace councils). In 1829 the Winnebago ceded half of their territory under duress. At this meeting, Naw kaw successfully pleaded with the president to spare the life of a warrior who had been imprisoned. This, and the effort he made to prevent violence against Americans, were part of his duty as peace chief until he died in 1833 from smallpox, as had many of the Winnebago chiefs. These deaths undercut the tribe's effort to avoid removal from Wisconsin. Painting by Charles Bird King, 1829, in Thomas Loraine McKenney and James Hall, History of the Indian Tribes of North America (Newberry Library, Ayer 249 .M2 1848, v. 1).

  Four Legs (Hootschope)

  Four Legs (Hootschope) was an important Winnebago (Ho-Chunk) war chief born into the Bear clan in about 1775. His village was on Doty Island. He supported Tecumseh's resistance movement and, in the War of 1812, he helped the British. He signed the Treaty of Prairie du Chien in 1825, where a boundary was fixed between the Winnebago and their enemies so as to preserve the peace. He also signed the treaties of Green Bay in 1827, in which boundaries were established, and in 1828, in which land was opened to American settlers, including miners. Under pressure, he signed the treaty of 1829, in which the tribe ceded land. As the Bear Clan chief, he had authority in land negotiations. His wife was a multilingual Fox woman who assisted him in his duties and promoted peace. He died in 1830. James Lewis painted his portrait at the Treaty of Green Bay in 1827. Painting by James Otto Lewis at the Treaty of Green Bay in 1827 in James Otto Lewis, North American Aboriginal Port-folio (Newberry Library, Ayer 250.6 .L67 1838, no. 1).

  Wabasha (Leaf)

  Born in the 1760s, he was the son of Wabasha I, an important warrior and leader who fought for the British in the Revolutionary War. He was a war chief in 1787, fighting the Ojibwa. From about 1812 through the 1820s he was a village chief and the main leader from the Mdewakanton division of the Dakota. Wabasha was at the first peace council between the Dakotas and the United States in 1805, where he met with Zebulon Pike. But the Americans' behavior disappointed the Dakotas and Wabasha remained loyal to the British traders, refusing to sign treaties with the American government in the early 1800s. In 1825 the Americans succeeded in organizing a major multi-tribal treaty council at Prairie du Chien and Wabasha was a prominent speaker there, arguing for the aboriginal concept of land ownership and advocating for peace with Ojibwas, as well as the Sauk and Fox peoples. James Lewis painted his portrait here. His eye is covered because he lost his sight in it while playing lacrosse as a youth. As a leader, Wabasha had to persuade people; he had no power to compel. About this time, Dakotas began trading with the American Fur Company, and he had in-laws among the traders. Wabasha attended another treaty council at Prairie du Chien in 1830, where the Dakotas, including Chief Wabasha, agreed to a cession of a 20 mile wide strip of land intended to be a neutral zone between the tribes. The Americans promised a $2,000 annuity for ten years in addition to agricultural and educational aid. Wabasha was the most important Mdewakanton Dakota leader at this time and helped the Americans in the Black Hawk War. He died in a smallpox epidemic in 1836. Painted by James Otto Lewis in James Otto Lewis, North American Aboriginal Port-folio (Newberry Library, Ayer 250.6 .L67 1838, no. 1).

  Oshkosh

  Oshkosh was a grandson of the Menominees' main chief during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Born in 1795, he was a member of the Bear Clan, which provided the civil chiefs of the Menominees. He also had learned English. At the Treaty of 1827, Lewis Cass, the Governor of Michigan Territory, appointed him "head chief" so the United States would have a recognized spokesman from the tribe. Not all Menominees supported this action, but subsequently Oshkosh became an advocate for Menominee interests, eventually provoking hostility from the American officials, who unsuccessfully tried to replace him. Americans pressured the Menominee for land cessions and Oshkosh and other leaders signed a treaty in 1836, ceding a huge portion of their territory for annuities for 20 years. They complained that Americans did not deal with them honestly in treaty negotiations. In the 1840s, led by Oshkosh, the Menominees resisted being removed from Wisconsin altogether. Wisconsin became a state in 1848 and the Menominee were threatened with forcible removal so they agreed to leave. But they mounted a campaign to persuade the president to allow them a reservation. Oshkosh led a delegation to Washington in 1850 to meet with President Millard Fillmore, and in 1854 they obtained title to a small reservation on the Wolf River. In 1856 the Menominee were pressured into ceding a small portion of the reservation to establish a home for the Stockbridge and Munsee Indians. Oshkosh signed this treaty. He settled on the reservation with his followers near Keshena Falls and followed the Medicine Lodge religion. Oshkosh died in 1858. Painting by Samuel Marsden Brookes, 1858, courtesy of Wisconsin Historical Society.

  Flat Mouth, 1855

  Flat Mouth, as he was referred to by traders, was a warrior, then a civil chief of the Leech Lake Pillager band of Ojibwa in Minnesota. Born about 1774, his name was Aysh-Ke-bah-ke-ko-zhay or "bird with the green bill." He met Zebulon Pike in 1808 and was a prominent civil chief who acted as spokesman for his people until he died about 1860. He confronted federal officials about their failure to keep the promises made at the Fond du Lac Treaty of 1826, returning the medals and other gifts. As the main civil chief, he signed the treaties of 1837, 1842, and also 1847. In 1855 he and other delegates were summoned to Washington and threatened until they signed a treaty in which they ceded most of their land in Minnesota. They retained reservations, including Leech Lake, and the promise of annuities and services. After signing this treaty, Flat Mouth became unpopular among his people, but he continued to upbraid American officials, telling the Indian agent in 1858 not to refer to Ojibwas as "red children" of "white fathers": "I am too old to have a father but accept you as a brother." Flat Mouth died about 1860. Artist unknown, courtesy of Minnesota Historical Society.

  Buffalo (Kechewaishke)

  Buffalo was an Ojibwa chief from La Pointe, who was born about 1759. A member of the Loon Clan, he succeeded his father as peace chief in 1795. He attended the treaty councils at Prairie du Chien in 1825 and Fond du Lac in 1826. He also signed the treaties of 1837 and 1842. Although they did not realize it, at the latter treaty council, the Ojibwas were manipulated into ceding their land in Wisconsin. Buffalo is credited with helping the Ojibwas remain in Wisconsin despite the federal government's determination to remove them. In 1850 President Zachary Taylor had signed an executive order of removal. In the spring of 1851, 400 Ojibwas died trying to travel to receive their annuities, and the order was temporarily suspended. Buffalo, at the age of 90, was determined to prevent removal. In the spring of 1852 he and four other Ojibwa leaders went to Washington armed with a petition of support from citizens. Buffalo told the new president Millard Fillmore of the history of Ojibwa treaties and the reasons why Ojibwas should not be removed. This delegation was successful and in 1854 a treaty was signed by Buffalo and others that guaranteed Ojibwa reservations in Wisconsin. Buffalo's people were assigned Red Cliff Reservation in Wisconsin. He died of pneumonia in 1855. Artist unknown, no date, courtesy of Wisconsin Historical Society.

  Little Crow (Taoyateduta)

  Little Crow (Taoyateduta) was born about 1810. The name Taoyateduta meant "His Red Nation," a reminder of social responsibility. "Little Crow" was a leadership title passed down in his family. His father and grandfather were village chiefs. As a youth, he acquired a good war record and joined the Medicine Society. He also attended the missionaries' school and learned to read and write his language, as well as some English. His village was near Ft. Snelling and women of his family had married traders. In 1845 his father died, and Little Crow, who had been living in another village, returned and convinced his people by a display of bravery and oratory that he should lead. He became an important village chief in the Mdewakanton division of the Dakota. By 1851 the Dakotas' economic position had declined and the United States pressured them for a land cession at a treaty council in 1851. Game was scarce and the Dakotas needed the distribution of money and food from treaty annuities. At this Treaty of Mendota, Little Crow initially opposed the cession but eventually signed the treaty in hopes of protecting Dakota rights in the region. He was the main spokesman for the Mdewakanton and was the first to sign the treaty, insisting on a reservation near the wooded region. Little Crow went to Washington D.C. in 1854 to convince President Franklin Pierce to permanently establish their reservation and took credit for this accomplishment. On the reservation, Little Crow tried to maintain peace between the Dakotas and the settlers, who had moved into Dakota country, even hunting down Dakotas who attacked settlers. At another treaty council in Washington in 1858, Little Crow defended his people against American accusations and protested the United States's failure to abide by their 1851 agreement to provide supplies, but the Dakota delegation was threatened with loss of the reservation altogether. They agreed to cede more land and to accept allotments (small plots assigned to individuals) rather than continuing to hold land in common. In 1862 Little Crow again complained, "We have waited a long time. The money is ours, but we cannot get it. We have no food, but here are these stores, filled with food." He begged the local American officials for help, but the storekeeper's reply was, "Let them eat grass." This treatment sparked looting and violence that led to the "Dakota War" in 1862. Little Crow tried to prevent Dakota attacks but eventually agreed to lead the warriors. The United States prevailed militarily and Little Crow fled west of the Mississippi River. Other Dakota chiefs made peace with the Americans. Little Crow returned home in 1863 and was killed by settlers. The photograph was taken in 1857. The photographer Julian Vannerson (James E. McClees Studio) posed Little Crow as a warrior, but he was an advocate for accommodation with Americans. Photo courtesy of National Anthropological Archives (INV 01169600 1857)

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  Proceedings of the Treaty of 1837, p. 1

  The council was held at St. Peters in Wisconsin Territory in the month of July between Governor Henry Dodge, representing the United States, and the “Chippewa Nation,” represented by their village or band chiefs. About 1,000 Ojibwas were at the council. The chiefs were expected to express the consensus of the Ojibwa adults. The Chippewas [Ojibwas] ceded their lands in what is now Wisconsin and part of their territory in what is now Minnesota. The chiefs and their communities are listed at the beginning of the document and “recognized” by the Governor. Documents Related to the Negotiation of Ratified and Unratified Treaties, Bureau of Indian Affairs (Newberry Library, M450).

  Proceedings of the Treaty of 1837, p. 2

  Governor Dodge addressed the chiefs of the “Chippewa Nation” and referred to the President as “the Great Father.” He minimized the loss the cession would mean for the Ojibwas’ ability to survive. He also showed his determination to obtain the forest area, a rich source of timber for the market, and represented it as “not valuable” to the Ojibwas. Dodge dismissed the possibility that the Ojibwas would make commercial use of their timber themselves and he promised “full” compensation. Realistically, the Ojibwas did not have the option of refusing to cede their land, but they successfully insisted on the right to hunt, fish, and gather rice on ceded lands. In later years, it was acknowledged that the compensation paid to the Ojibwas was far less than market value. Documents Related to the Negotiation of Ratified and Unratified Treaties, Bureau of Indian Affairs (Newberry Library, M450).